Natural killer cells kill other cells and the role of macrophages
Shanice was a vibrant 16-year-old who was enjoying her high school years. As a good student, she loved attending school and woke up eager to start the day every morning. A popular girl, she was surrounded by many friends who all enjoyed each other’s company.
Shanice was susceptible to recurrent viral and bacterial infections from an early age. No matter what she tried, she tended to have numerous infections every year, damaging some of her social activities.
Recently, she had been experiencing recurrent lung infections, spending a week in the hospital with pneumonia and recurrent herpes viral infections. Concerned over these recurrent infections, Shanice was sent to an immunologist for further consultation.
Tests were performed to evaluate the number and activities of her B-cells, T-cells, and natural killer cells. Results showed that Shanice had low numbers and decreased activity of her natural killer cells.
Keep in mind that natural killer cells are part of the innate immune response.
Deliverables
Answer the following questions and save your responses in a Microsoft Word document. Provide a scholarly resource to support your answers.
- Why are natural killer cells considered to be part of the innate immune response?
- What types of cells do natural killer cells act against?
- Describe the process whereby natural killer cells kill other cells and the role of macrophages in the process.
- The Immunologist cautioned Shanice that she may be more susceptible to virally induced cancers. Why did the Immunologist state this?
- What treatments or other options do Shanice have to counteract the natural killer cell deficiency?
Case Study on Natural Killer Cell Deficiency
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Case Study on Natural Killer Cell Deficiency
Natural Killer Cells Kill Other Cells and the Role of Macrophages
Natural Killer (NK) cells are an essential component of the innate immune system, and deficiencies in these cells can lead to severe immunological disorders and increased susceptibility to infections and cancers. Natural Killer (NK) cells are immune cells that play a critical role in detecting and destroying infected or cancerous cells in the body (Daly et al., 2019). Natural killer cell deficiency is a rare genetic disorder that affects the development or function of these immune cells. As a result, individuals with NK cell deficiency are more susceptible to viral and bacterial infections and have an increased risk of developing certain types of cancers (Quatrini et al., 2021). Symptoms of the disorder may include recurrent infections, chronic inflammation, and increased susceptibility to autoimmune diseases. Treatment options for NK cell deficiency are limited and may include immunoglobulin replacement therapy, antiviral drugs, and stem cell transplantation. Early diagnosis and management of the disorder can help improve outcomes and reduce the risk of complications.
Natural killer (NK) cells are white blood cells that play a critical role in the immune system’s defence against infections and cancer. They are unique in their ability to recognize and kill infected or cancerous cells without prior activation or specific targeting. When a foreign cell is detected, NK cells release toxic granules that kill the targeted cell, destroying it (Souza-Fonseca-Guimaraes et al., 2019). However, NK cells cannot eliminate all infected cells alone, where macrophages come into play. Macrophages are another type of white blood cell that engulfs and digests foreign substances, including viruses and bacteria (Keselowsky et al., 2020). In the case of NK cells, macrophages act as a backup by engulfing and clearing the remnants of the dead cells left behind by NK cells. This synergy between NK cells and macrophages is essential for an effective immune response against infections and cancer. The essay will discuss the role of natural killer cells as part of the innate immune response, their activity against different types of cells, the process of how natural killer cells kill other cells, and the role of macrophages in this process, it also explores the immunologist’s caution that Shanice may be more susceptible to virally induced cancers due to her natural killer cell deficiency and lastly, look at the treatment options and other measures available to counteract the deficiency.
Natural Killer Cells are Considered Part of the Innate Immune Response
Natural killer (NK) cells are lymphocytes that play an essential role in the immune response against infected or cancerous cells. They are called “natural” killers because they can recognize and kill target cells without prior exposure or activation. NK cells are part of the innate immune response because they are present in the body from birth and do not require prior exposure to a specific pathogen or antigen to recognize and eliminate infected or abnormal cells (Subedi et al., 2022). This is in contrast to adaptive immune responses, which involve activating antigen-specific T and B cells that require prior exposure to a specific pathogen or antigen to become activated. NK cells can recognize and eliminate target cells by using a variety of receptors on their surface, including activating receptors that recognize stress-induced ligands on infected or cancerous cells and inhibitory receptors that recognize MHC class I molecules on healthy cells (Martinez & Moon, 2019). This allows NK cells to distinguish between healthy and abnormal cells and selectively eliminate only those cells that threaten the body. Overall, the innate immune system is the first line of defence against pathogens and abnormal cells and includes a variety of mechanisms and cells, such as NK cells, that can recognize and eliminate threats to the body without the need for prior exposure or activation.
Types of Cells that Natural Killer Cells Act against
Natural killer (NK) cells are a type of white blood cell that play a critical role in the immune system. Unlike other immune cells, which require the recognition of a specific antigen to be activated, NK cells can recognize and attack a broad range of infected, stressed, or cancerous cells without prior exposure. NK cells can act against various types of cells, including virus-infected cells, tumour cells, and even healthy cells that are stressed or undergoing transformation (Cantoni et al., 2020). This is because NK cells are equipped with receptors that detect changes in the surface molecules of cells, such as the lack of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules, which are usually present in healthy cells. Infected or transformed cells may downregulate MHC-I expression as an immune evasion strategy, making them susceptible to NK cell-mediated killing. Additionally, NK cells can recognize other signals on the surface of target cells, such as stress-induced ligands or antibodies that coat infected or cancerous cells (Zambello et al., 2020). This allows them to target and eliminate a wide range of abnormal or damaged cells in the body. Overall, NK cells play a crucial role in the immune system by providing a rapid and nonspecific response against abnormal or potentially harmful cells, helping to keep the body healthy and free of infection and disease.
The Process of how Natural Killer Cells Kill Other Cells
Natural Killer (NK) cells are an essential component of the innate immune system and play a crucial role in defending the body against cancerous and virus-infected cells. The process by which NK cells kill other cells involves a series of complex steps that are tightly regulated to ensure the efficient elimination of harmful cells while minimizing damage to healthy tissues (Yilmaz et al., 2020). The first step in this process involves the recognition of target cells. NK cells can recognize abnormal cells by detecting the absence or alteration of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules on the surface of the target cells. MHC class I molecules are generally present on the surface of all nucleated cells and serve as a means of self-recognition, allowing the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self-cells. Once NK cells recognize a target cell, they are activated and begin killing it. One of the critical mechanisms by which NK cells kill other cells is the release of cytotoxic granules (Prager & Watzl 2019). These granules contain various proteins, including perforin and granzymes, that are toxic to target cells. Perforin is a protein that forms pores in the target cell’s membrane, allowing the entry of other toxic proteins, such as granzymes. Granzymes are proteases that cleave specific proteins within the target cell, triggering a cascade of events that ultimately lead to the cell’s death (Hay & Slansky, 2022). In addition to the release of cytotoxic granules, NK cells can induce target cell death by activating death receptors on the target cell’s surface (Prager et al., 2019). These receptors, including Fas and TRAIL, trigger a signalling pathway within the target cell, leading to programmed cell death or apoptosis. Overall, the process by which NK cells kill other cells is a complex and highly regulated process that involves recognizing target cells, activating NK cells, releasing cytotoxic granules, and activating death receptors. This process is critical in the immune system’s ability to defend the body against cancer and viral infections.
The Role of Macrophages in the Process of how Natural Killer Cells Kill Other Cells
Natural Killer (NK) cells and macrophages are immune cells critical in defending the body against infections and cancer. Both cell types are part of the innate immune system, which provides immediate protection against foreign invaders. While NK cells and macrophages have different functions and mechanisms of action, they can work together to eliminate harmful cells. Macrophages are large white blood cells capable of engulfing and digesting foreign particles, such as bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells (Glenn & Armstrong, 2019). When macrophages encounter these harmful cells, they engulf them through phagocytosis. Once inside the macrophage, the cell is destroyed by enzymes and other toxic substances, while NK cells, on the other hand, are specialized lymphocytes that can identify and kill infected or cancerous cells without prior exposure (Hegedűs et al., 2018). They do this by recognizing and binding to the abnormal cells and releasing cytotoxic granules containing perforin and granzymes, which induce cell death.
In killing other cells, macrophages and NK cells can work together in several ways. Macrophages can activate NK cells by releasing cytokines, which are chemical messengers that stimulate the immune response (Habanjar et al., 2023). This activation can enhance the NK cell’s ability to recognize and destroy abnormal cells. In addition, macrophages can also present antigens from engulfed cells to NK cells, further enhancing their recognition and targeting of these cells. Furthermore, macrophages can act as scavengers, clearing cellular debris from the NK cell’s cytotoxic activity (Mehla & Singh, 2019). This not only prevents the debris from causing inflammation and tissue damage but also helps to promote the resolution of the immune response. Overall, macrophages support NK cell activity in eliminating harmful cells. By activating and presenting antigens to NK cells and cleaning up debris, macrophages can enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the immune response.
The Immunologist Cautioned that Shanice might be more susceptible to Virally Induced Cancers due to her Natural Killer Cell Deficiency
The Immunologist cautioned Shanice that she might be more susceptible to virally induced cancers because natural killer (NK) cells are part of the innate immune system and play a crucial role in defending the body against cancerous cells. NK cells are specialized white blood cells that detect and eliminate abnormal cells, including those infected with viruses and cancer cells (Cruz-Muñoz et al., 2019). They do so by recognizing specific markers on the surface of these cells and triggering a response that leads to their destruction. When the number and activity of NK cells are low, as in Shanice’s case, the body’s ability to detect and eliminate cancer cells is compromised. This can increase the risk of developing virally induced cancers, which are caused by viruses that can lead to uncontrolled growth and division of cells, resulting in cancer. Therefore, the Immunologist’s caution to Shanice was based on the understanding that her low NK cell numbers and decreased activity could leave her vulnerable to developing cancerous cells caused by viral infections. The caution emphasizes maintaining a healthy immune system to protect against cancer and other diseases.
The Treatment Options and Other Measures Available to Counteract the Deficiency
Shanice’s low numbers and decreased activity of natural killer cells put her at risk of recurrent viral and bacterial infections, which can significantly impact her quality of life. To counteract this deficiency, several treatment options are available. Firstly, Shanice can be given medication to stimulate the activity of her natural killer cells. Interleukin-2 (IL-2), a cytokine that activates the proliferation and activity of natural killer cells, can be given as a subcutaneous injection or intravenously (Demaria et al., 2022). However, this treatment can have adverse side effects, including fever, fatigue, and decreased appetite. Secondly, Shanice can receive intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapy. This treatment involves the infusion of purified immunoglobulins from healthy donors to boost her immune system (Rojas et al., 2020). IVIG contains antibodies that help to fight infections, and it has been shown to improve the number and activity of natural killer cells.
Another option for Shanice is to receive stem cell transplantation. This treatment involves replacing her defective immune cells with healthy ones derived from a compatible donor (Gennery, 2020). This procedure is more invasive and carries a higher risk of complications, but it can provide a long-term solution to her natural killer cell deficiency. Lastly, Shanice can modify her lifestyle to reduce her risk of infections. This includes washing her hands regularly, avoiding close contact with sick people, getting enough sleep, eating a balanced diet, and exercising regularly. These measures can help to strengthen her immune system and reduce her risk of recurrent infections. Shanice has several treatment options available to counteract her natural killer cell deficiency. A combination of medication, IVIG therapy, stem cell transplantation, and lifestyle modifications can help to improve her immune function and reduce her risk of recurrent infections.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Shanice’s case study provides valuable insights into the importance of natural killer cells in the immune response. Natural killer cells are considered part of the innate immune response due to their ability to recognize and kill virally infected cells without prior exposure to the antigen. Natural killer cells act against tumours and virally-infected cells by releasing perforin and granzyme, inducing apoptosis in the target cells. Macrophages also play a critical role in phagocytizing apoptotic cells and presenting the antigens to the adaptive immune system. Shanice’s deficient natural killer cells put her at increased risk for virally induced cancers due to the inability of her immune system to target and eliminate tumour cells. Treatment options for Shanice include immunomodulatory therapy, stem cell transplantation, and gene therapy to restore natural killer cell activity and decrease susceptibility to infections and cancer. This case underscores the importance of early detection and management of immune deficiencies to prevent severe health consequences.
References
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